biodiversity and Ecology

"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness

Biodiversity is the biological variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the equator. which is the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richer in the tropics] These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species. Marine biodiversity is usually higher along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceansThere are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation.

"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness

Biodiversity is the biological variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is typically a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. Terrestrial biodiversity is usually greater near the equator. which is the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richer in the tropics  These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 percent of earth's surface, and contain about 90 percent of the world's species. Marine biodiversity is usually higher along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceansThere are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation.

• warm climate
• domesticated species
• biomass
• energy resources
• soil erosion
• greenhouse gas emissions
• Wildlife Service Refuges
• global warming
• farm enormous tracts
• live stock population
• protects flora, fauna.
• heterogeneous land forms.
• loss of habitat, genetic variation
• exotic species

Plant and Animal Biodiversity

The diversity of plants on the planet earth is an important resource for food, shelter, and agriculture. About thousands of plant crop species have been identified, developed, used and relied on for the purpose of food and agricultural production in human history. These plants include bushes, grasses, herbs, shrubs, trees, vines, ferns, and mosses. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants provide us with the oxygen which we breathe and the sugars that provide the primary fuel for life.

There is a great variation in the biodiversity, resulting from human and ecosystem interaction for certain food and development for the survival of the human population, regardless of the pests, climate fluctuations, diseases, droughts and other unexpected environmental events. Currently, there are only a few crop species which provide us with food and essential energy requirements for the total human population all around the world. These crops include rice, wheat, maize, cereals, pulses, etc. As per the requirement on this moderately small number of crops for global food security, it will be essential to maintain a continuity of these plants species along with the increasing environmental stress and to provide opportunities for the farmers to breed more amount of crops that can be cultivated under unfavourable conditions such as poor soil, salinity, drought, flooding, and extreme temperatures.

Similar to the plants, the biodiversity of animals is vast and there are several animal species which have been trained, domesticated and used for the food production, for the agriculture and are the primary biological capital for livestock development. This plays a vital role in food safety and also in maintaining rural development. Yet, its management has been terrible. There have been a lot of animals that have gone extinct over the past few years and this is a matter of great sorrow

Marine Biodiversity

Marine biodiversity is valued for its direct utility for people, the ecosystem services it provides, and its intrinsic worth. Marine ecosystems are subject to a variety of anthropogenic threats including disease, pollution, climate change, habitat alteration, overexploitation, and invasive species. Natural threats, such as physical destruction by storms and temperature and salinity changes from natural cycles, also occur. A suite of conservation approaches are used to protect these ecosystems and involve monitoring, management, and international cooperation. Here, we discuss the main threats and conservation strategies for marine ecosystems, as well as offer suggestions for research areas and improved conservation measures.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

• The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given
• The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while simultaneously sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system.

Forestry

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical and managerial sciences.

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including:

• The provision of timber
• Fuel wood
• Wildlife habitat
• Natural water quality management
• Recreation
• Landscape and community protection

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical and managerial sciences.

Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including:

Reduce Climate Change

Climate change is a global modification of the climate over a long period of time (from decades to millions of years). These changes can occur both regionally and globally. By climate change we mean the increase in temperature from the middle of the 20th century to the present day.Even if climate change can also have natural causes, it is largely related to human activity and greenhouse gases.

• Say No to Plastics
• Renewables to the rescue
• Reduce food waste
• Stop chopping down the forests
• Reduce water waste

Habitate Restoration

Habitat restoration is important for reasons varying from aesthetic and recreational to economic and pragmatic. Wild lands and wilderness have aesthetic properties that help to maintain mental health for millions of people every year. Restoring habitats can facilitate the return of wildlife to disturbed areas for its own sake or for the sake of recreational activities such as hiking, hunting, fishing, and bird-watching. Returning disturbed land to health can add to existing habitats, making them larger and thereby helping to protect species against the dangers of small population sizes. Restoring areas that have been damaged through human use can allow an area to be used again for another purpose. For example, areas that have been mined are often acidic and have high heavy-metal concentrations, making it difficult for native plants to be reestablished in the area. Restoring these areas can help to make the habitat healthy again. In the future, the same land could be available for timber harvesting or recreational parkland, or as a wildlife refuge. Healthy forests and riparian zones help control erosion and maintain good water quality in streams and lakes. Reforestation and restoring damaged riparian zones helps ensure clean drinking water, control floods, and maintain healthy fish and amphibian populationsHabitat restoration is important for reasons varying from aesthetic and recreational to economic and pragmatic. Wild lands and wilderness have aesthetic properties that help to maintain mental health for millions of people every year. Restoring habitats can facilitate the return of wildlife to disturbed areas for its own sake or for the sake of recreational activities such as hiking, hunting, fishing, and bird-watching. Returning disturbed land to health can add to existing habitats, making them larger and thereby helping to protect species against the dangers of small population sizes. Restoring areas that have been damaged through human use can allow an area to be used again for another purpose. For example, areas that have been mined are often acidic and have high heavy-metal concentrations, making it difficult for native plants to be reestablished in the area. Restoring these areas can help to make the habitat healthy again. In the future, the same land could be available for timber harvesting or recreational parkland, or as a wildlife refuge. Healthy forests and riparian zones help control erosion and maintain good water quality in streams and lakes. Reforestation and restoring damaged riparian zones helps ensure clean drinking water, control floods, and maintain healthy fish and amphibian populations

Environmental Pollution & Managment

Environmental pollution is defined as the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere to an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected. These effects can cause soil erosion, desertification, landslides, extinction of species, depletion of natural resources and waste accumulation.

Environmental pollution occurs in various forms, namely, air, water soil, radioactive, noise, heat/thermal and light.

• Management of Waste
• Recycling
• Sewage Treatment
• Incineration
• Digestion
• Dumping
• Green Chemistry

Intensive agriculture

Intensive agriculture, in agricultural economics, system of cultivation using large amounts of labour and capital relative to land area. Large amounts of labour and capital are necessary to the application of fertilizer, insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to growing crops, and capital is particularly important to the acquisition and maintenance of high-efficiency machinery for planting, cultivating, and harvesting, as well as irrigation equipment where that is required.

• Smaller Farm Size 
•  High Intensity of Labour Participation
•   High Productivity
•  Low Per Capita Output
•  Emphasis on Cereal
•  Dependence on Climate Dependence on SoilLow Marketability
• Low Marketability

Soil degradation

Soil degradation is the loss of land’s production capacity in terms of loss of soil fertility, soil biodiversity, and degradation. Soil degradation causes include agricultural, industrial, and commercial pollution; loss of arable land due to urban expansion, overgrazing, and unsustainable agricultural practices; and long-term climatic changes. According to a recent report to the United Nations, almost one-third of the world’s farmable land has disappeared in the last four decades. It was also reported that all of the World’s topsoil could become unproductive within 60 years if current rates of loss continue. The issues of soil health and impacts on human well-being.

Nature preserves

The Nature Preserve system is administered by the Division  is charged with insuring that the natural qualities of preserves are protected. This may include:

• Prescribed burning
• Removing non-native plants
• Other management provided for in the Master Plan
• Maintaining boundaries and trails

Land scape

 A sustainable landscape, for example, meets "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Approaching conservation by means of landscapes can be seen as "a conceptual framework whereby stakeholders in a landscape aim to reconcile competing social, economic and environmental objectives". Instead of focussing on a single use of the land it aims to ensure that the interests of different stakeholders are met

The starting point for all landscape-scale conservation schemes must be an understanding of the character of the landscape. Landscape character goes beyond aesthetic. It involves understanding how the landscape functions to support communities, cultural heritage and development, the economy, as well as the wildlife and natural resources of the area. Landscape character requires careful assessment according to accepted methodologies. Landscape character assessment will contribute to the determination of what scale is appropriate in which landscape. "Landscape scale" does not merely mean acting at a bigger scale: it means conservation is carried out at the correct scale and that it takes into account the human elements of the landscape, both past and present.

endangred species

There is data from the United States that shows a correlation between human populations and threatened and endangered species. Using species data from the Database on the Economics and Management of Endangered Species (DEMES) database and the period that the Endangered Species Act (ESA) has been in existence, 1970 to 1997, a table was created that suggests a positive relationship between human activity and species endangerment.

threats of biodiversity

Some of the main threats to biodiversity are: 1. Human Activities and Loss of Habitat, 2. Deforestation, 3. Desertification, 4. Marine Environment, 5. Increasing Wildlife Trade and 6. Climate Change.

biodiversity models &conservation methods

Biodiversity conservation is the protection and management of biodiversity to obtain resources for sustainable development.

*Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives:

*To preserve the diversity of species.

*Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem.

*To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes.