Microalgae research and development - from genetics to cultivation
Microalgae, also known as microphytes are microscopic algae which are found in both fresh water and marine systems. They live in both water column and sediment. Microphytes generally range from few micrometres (µm) to few hundred micrometres depending on their species. Unlike other plants, it does not contain any roots, leaves or stems. They generally adjust to an environment dominated by viscous forces. The algae which is capable of performing photosynthesis is useful for life on earth as they can produce approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen and at the same time use the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide to grow photo auto typically. The base of the food web is formed by microalgae together with bacteria which provide energy for all the trophic levels above them. With chlorophyll a concentrations the microalgae biomass is frequently measured and can also provide a useful index of potential production.

European developments in microalgae novel approaches, products, processes
Microalgae is one of the most promising feed stocks for a sustainable supply of commodities and specialities for both food and non-food products. Microalgae business sector is one of the best growing sectors with a good progression with several companies each year is. Over 100 companies and 10,000 work places spread throughout Europe in this sector. Several multinational companies like DSM, BASF, Roquette and Aqualia has showed interest to invest in the use of algae in their products. There are only three possible forms of products available from microalgae currently which are dried microalgae, microalgae paste and microalgae extracts each of which has a wide range of formulations. Standardization in algae production is an issue in recent years, where the EU and other parties are working on it to safeguard a consistent quality of the algae and algae products.

Bio refineries - combining commodities with high value products
All currently available processes including biomass availability, pre-treatment, fermentation and water recycling are involved in designing a single operational process in a very planned and economic way outlined by Bio refineries. It targets in biofuels but acts as an aid to develop cost effective methods for the collection of commodity chemicals

Animal and aquaculture feeds
For early developmental stages of many farmed finfish, shellfish and invertebrate species, Microalgae offer an important direct or indirect feed source. Hatcheries usually cultivate microalgae in house, with commercial concentrates now are also being used widely. The efficacy within the formulated animal feeds differs according to micro and macro algae, even though there is sufficient proof of good nutritional properties to promote algal biomass as a basis of micronutrients or as a bulk feedstuff. High expenses of algal biomass when contrasted with item feed stuffs by and by control their business use to niche animal feed applications, more noteworthy accessibility or lower cost by means of biofuels and bio refinery would empower more far reaching use in future.

Special session on macro algae
Macro algae, also known as “Seaweed” which is a colloquial term and lacks a formal definition which refer to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae which includes various types of brown, green and red macro algae. As seaweed could be a source of multiple compounds (i.e. polysaccharides, phenols and proteins) with applications such as food and animal feed, pharmaceutical or fertilizers, they may provide excellent opportunities for its industrial exploitation. The seaweeds are categorised in a polyphyletic group as the three groups do not have a common multicellular ancestor. Cyanobacteria (tuft-blue green algae) are sometimes considered to be seaweed. Seaweed’s look similar as non-arboreal terrestrial plants. There are two particular environmental necessities which control seaweed ecology; they are the presence of seawater also known as brackish water and the presence of sufficient light to initiate photosynthesis. Seaweeds are used in a variable ways, some of uses are it is used in food, herbalism, filtration, also used as fertilizer, an ingredient in tooth paste, cosmetics and paints. The main source of hydrogen sulphide is decaying of seaweeds, which causes high toxic gas which has been implicated in some incidents of apparent hydrogen-sulphide poisoning which may lead to vomiting and diarrhoea.

Novel algal foods - latest developments in regulations and marketing in nutrition and animal feed
Worldwide interest for macroalgal and microalgal nourishment is developing, and algae are progressively being expended for utilitarian advantages past the customary contemplations of nourishment and wellbeing. There is generous proof for the medical advantages of algal-determined nourishment items, yet there stay impressive difficulties in evaluating these advantages, and in addition conceivable antagonistic impacts. The First issue is there is a constrained nutritional composition all over algal species, geographical regions, and seasons, all of which can considerably influence their dietary value. Secondly evaluating which portions of algal foods are bioavailable to people, and which factors impact how nourishment constituents are released, ranging from food preparation through genetic differentiation in the gut microbiome. The third is, understanding how algal nutritional and functional constituents interact in human metabolism. The effects of superimposed reflections are storage, harvesting, and food processing techniques which can intensely affect the potential nutritive value of algal-derived foods. This is been highlighted to have a particular focus on the key research, required to access better the health benefits of an alga or algal product. There are a number of opportunities for phycologists in this field, requiring exciting new experimental and collaborative approaches.

Algae and agriculture bio stimulants, bio fertilizers
Algae are a large, diverse group of microorganisms which can carry out photosynthesis by capturing the energy from sunlight. Algae play an important role where they are used as soil stabilizers and bio fertilizers. Seaweeds, particularly used as fertilizers, which results in less nitrogen and phosphorus runoff than the one from the use of livestock manure which in turn increases the quality of water flowing into rivers and oceans. These organisms are cultivated all over the world and used as human food supplements. They can grow on wild lands and arid deserts lands with minimal demands for fresh water and also produce a clean and carbon-neutral food. Seaweeds are the most important source for iodine. Iodine levels in the milk depend upon the food given to the cow. The increase in the quantity of iodine in milk can be raised by feeding milk cattle with seaweeds according to Fuzhou Wonderful Biological Technology. The rate of egg-laying in hen is also increased by algae feed activities. Biologically derived fertilizer additives and similar products which are agricultural bio stimulants can be used to enhance plant growth, health and productivity in crop production. They may influence in achieving this by helping to improve nutrient use efficiency.

Environmental applications wastewater treatment and water recycling, nutrients and water recycling
The water recycling process uses very basic physical, chemical and biological principles to remove contaminants from water. There are mainly 3 treatments involved to treat waste water where the primary treatment is the use of mechanical or physical systems, the secondary treatment also known as “Bug Farming” involves the use of biological processes to provide further treatment, and the tertiary or advanced treatment is additional purification.

Conservation of fungi
Fungi are believed to be in basic need of conservation by the British Mycological Society since it is a generally disregarded taxon which has lawful assurance in couple of countries. Current dangers to growths incorporate destruction of woods around the world, changes in land use, fragmentation of habitat, contamination, anthropogenic environmental change and over-exploitation of commercially attractive species. The Species Survival Commission of the IUCN has five expert gatherings managing the preservation of organisms: Chytrid, Zygomycete, Downy Mildew and Slime Mold Specialist Group, Lichen Specialist Group, Cup-fungus, Truffle and Ally Specialist Group, Rust and Smut Specialist Group, Mushroom, Bracket and Puffball Specialist Group,. Lack of understanding is viewed as a noteworthy worry with a general lack of far reaching agendas, even for developed countries. Moreover, the criteria for "red-listing" isn't particularly intended for organisms and the sorts of information required, viz. populace measure, life expectancy, spatial dispersion and populace elements are inadequately known for generally parasites. Therefore practically speaking, indicator species are recognized as target foci for the security of debilitated fungi.

Useful Activities of fungi
Fungi are useful in many ways for the benefits of human beings either directly or indirectly. Some of the uses of fungi are different types of fungi are been used by the scientists in different kinds of medicines which doctors sometimes use them to treat bacterial infections, fungi can be good to eat, like some mushrooms, bread, cheese etc. so been used in food and processing of food, used in industry in the production of alcohol, bread, cheese, enzyme and organic acids, used in soil fertility, used as plant nutrition, manufacturing of Phytohormone, used as an insecticide, used in biological research, testing of organisms and many more. Mycorrhiza, streptomycin, tetracycline, yeast, mushrooms are some useful fungi.

limatic change and impact on fungal communities
Earth's weather keeps on changing. Impacts of environmental change on fungal distribution and activity are difficult to anticipate in light of the fact that they are interceded in a wide range of ways, including: fungal physiology, host physiology, spatial and temporal distribution of hosts, reproduction and survival, resource availability and competition. It is very difficult to monitor such effects on fungal mycelium in the field but fruit bodies deliver a beneficial substituent.

Fungal Pathogens
Of the considerable number of classes of infectious agents microorganisms, infections, parasites, worms and prions, fungi maybe the last to strike in mind and the minimum comprehended by most healthcare providers. Even though they do not frequently cause fatal disease, fungi can cause major injury and illness. Fungal infections are most difficult to prevent as well as to treat. Moreover, due to the existing human immunodeficiency virus or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) epidemic, fungal infections are likely to be more. Pathogens are toxic agents like infection, bacterium, prion, fungus, viroid that are in charge of the spread of disease in the host. Pathogenic fungus causes life threating diseases which are similar to that of normal moulds. There are many types of pathogens present some of them are candida, Cryptococcus, aspergillus, etc. which may cause diseases like smallpox, mumps, measles, influenza, Ebola, chickenpox and rubella. For the treatment of pathogenic fungus it is necessary to have more effective and less toxic drugs, it has provoked a look for new specialists that specially focus on the fungal cell wall and for better approaches to increase the efficacy and safety of traditional antifungal agents, such as amphotericin B and the azoles.

Positive fungal-plant interactions
There are various ways where fungi interact with plants and with each interaction there are different changes in both partners. Mutualistic fungi boost the host defence responses to pathogens so as to improve plant nutrient uptake while fungal pathogens show harmful effects on plant physiology. With the confirmation of specific-specific signals and sensing mechanisms, tropic growth towards plant roots or stomata, mediated by chemical and topographical signals has been referred to several fungi. Fungal partners discharge bio-active atoms, for example, small peptide effectors, enzymes and secondary metabolites which encourage colonization and add to both symbiotic and pathogenic relationships. There has been great development in fungal molecular biology, sciences and microscopy in recent years, opening up new potential outcomes for the distinguishing proof of key sub-atomic components in plant and fungal interactions, the intensity of which is frequently borne out in their mix. Having thorough knowledge on the interactions between plants and fungi may increase in preventing plant diseases, improving plant productivity and understanding ecosystem stability.

Fungal genomes
Fungal Genomics constitutes an entire arrangement of genes of fungi. There are numerous classes of fungal genomes which are exceptionally helpful for explore in agriculture, medicine, health care works. Fungi of human, animal, plant, and so on are also very helpful. For example, fungal genomics are used to study the fungal growth or occurrences of fungal infections. Plants develop in close relationship with fungi and pathogens, symbionts, and endophytes and rely upon these relationships for progress. In this way, understanding the mechanisms of these interactions is critical with a specific end goal to make ideal conditions for plant development. Genomics is a powerful tool not exclusively to find the potential encoded in genomes of the two plants and plant-related parasites yet additionally to monitor dynamics of their collaborations through gene expression and other genome-empowered examinations. Next generations sequencing innovations offer tools to investigate nature's wide exhibit of plant–fungal communications in remarkable profundity, and the sheer volume of information delivered is huge.

Fungal tree of life
Fungi are the group which belongs to one of the most different and largest kingdoms of living organisms. The evolutionary relationship in a fungal population has so far been concluded generally from the “gene-trees” (gene information based trees), built usually based on the degree of differences of proteins or DNA sequences of a lesser number of extremely preserved genes common among the population by a multiple sequence alignment (MSA) method. Since every gene advances under several evolutionary pressure and time scale, it has been understood that one gene tree for a population may differ from other gene trees for a similar population relying upon the subjective selection of the genes. Within the most recent decade, a huge number of whole-genome sequences of fungi have turned out to be freely accessible, which constitute now, the most major and complete data about each fungal organism. This shows a chance to deduce family relationship among parasites utilizing a whole-genome data based tree ("genome tree"). The technique we utilized permits examination of entire genome data without MSA, and is a variety of a computational calculation created to discover semantic similarities or plagiarism in two books, where we represent to entire genomic data of an organism as a book of words without spaces. The genome tree reveals a few noteworthy and prominent contrasts from the gene trees, and these variations invoke new discussions about alternative narratives for the advancement of a portion of the presently acknowledged fungal groups.

Fungal diversity
One of the largest forms of eukaryotic kingdoms is fungi, likely with a 1.5-5 million species. With a wide range of life cycles, morphogenesis, metabolisms and ecologies together with parasitism, mutualism and commensalism with many other organisms they form a diverse group. They are found in all temperature zones of the Earth with differing fauna and flora, and have an exceptionally expansive and significant effect on the Earth's environment through their functions of decomposing different biopolymers and other biological compounds in dead or live hosts, and of synthesizing various classes of biomolecules as food for human and other eukaryotes. Entire genome arrangements of varying completeness of more than 400 fungal species are existing widely at present. The genome estimate for the species varies from around 2–180 million nucleotides and expected proteome size varies from around 2–35 thousand proteins.

Lichens
Lichens are firm groupings between an alga and a fungus. The majority of the green growth found in lichens can happen as free-developing species, however fungal partner is never discovered becoming alone. It is the fungal mate which gives the logical name to the lichen combination, and subsequently they are frequently alluded to as 'lichenised fungi'. Lichenologists likewise tend to examine lichenicolous fungi; these are organisms that parasitize lichens.

Ecosystem services of fungi
Fungi play an important role in biospheres. Including deserts, fungi grow in a wide variety of habitat. Fungi mostly live in either soil or dead matter, and many are symbionts of plants, animals or other fungi. Most of the fungi grow on terrestrial environment (land), but some type of fungi live only in aquatic habitats. Fungi together with bacteria found in soil are the primary decomposers of organic matter in terrestrial ecosystems. The decay of dead organisms returns nutrients to the soil and to the environment. The best habitats to find fungi are woods and meadows. Most of the fungi (over 80%) are associated with trees and many of them form synergetic relationships with the tree’s roots. The association between fungi and the roots of trees and other plats is Mycorrhiza. Various fungi are linked with multiple trees where as others are linked with just one type of tree. Some fungi are linked to a specific tree where it is growing in a specific soil so the type of soil is important as well. The main significant soil factor is whether the soil is acidic or calcareous (chalky).